Larynx (incomplete research)

Larynx -  the hollow muscular organ forming an air passage to the lungs and holding the vocal cords in humans and other mammals; the voice box.

Olfactory System

Keyword

Olfactory Bulb - The olfactory bulb transmits smell information from the nose to the brain, and is thus necessary for a proper sense of smell. 

Olfactory glands -  might secrete proteins such as lysozyme, amylase and IgA similarly to serous glands. The exact composition of the secretions from olfactory glands is unclear, but there is evidence that they produce odorant binding protein.

Olfactory Receptor Neuron -  An odorant will dissolve into the mucus of the olfactory epithelium and then bind to an OR. ORs can bind to a variety of odor molecules, with varying affinities.

Olfactory neurons are receptor cells in the epithelium that detect odor molecules dissolved in the mucus and transmit information about the odor to the brain in a process called sensory transduction.

Olfactory neurons have cilia (tiny hairs) containing proteins that bind to odor molecules, causing an electrical response that spreads through the receptor cells to the olfactory nerve fibers at the back of the nasal cavity.

Olfactory Nerves -  transmit nerve impulses about odors to the central nervous system.

Olfactory nerves and fibers transmit information about odors from the peripheral olfactory system to the central olfactory system of the brain, which is separated from the epithelium by the cribriform plate (It is a part of ethmoid bone and supports the olfactory bulb.) of the ethmoid bone. (The ethmoid bone is an unpaired bone in the skull that separates the nasal cavity from the brain.).

Olfactory nerve fibers, which originate in the epithelium, pass through the cribriform plate, connecting the epithelium to the brain's limbic system at the olfactory bulbs.

Mitral cells  - are neurons that are part of the olfactory system. They are located in the olfactory bulb in the mammalian central nervous system. They receive information from the axons of olfactory receptor neurons, forming synapses (In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron.) in neuropils called glomeruli.

olfactory epithelium -  specialized epithelial tissue inside the nasal cavity that is involved in smell.

A glomerulus -   is a network (as a tuft) of capillaries (any of the fine branching blood vessels that form a network between the arterioles and venules.) located at the beginning of a nephron (is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. Its chief function is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine.) in the kidney. It serves as the first stage in the filtering process of the blood carried out by the nephron in its formation of urine.

Nasal Cavity

Conchae - nasal concha, also called Turbinate, or Turbinal, any of several thin, scroll-shaped bony elements forming the upper chambers of the nasal cavities. They increase the surface area of these cavities, thus providing for rapid warming and humidification of air as it passes to the lungs.

Regarding Social Science Definitions

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is judging another culture solely by the values and standards of one's own culture. Having or based on the idea that your own group or culture is better or more important than others.

Ethnocentric individuals believe that they are better than other individuals for reasons based solely on their heritage. Clearly, this practice is related to problems of both racism and prejudice.

While many people may recognize the problems, they may not realize that ethnocentrism occurs everywhere and everyday at both the local and political levels.

Cultural relativism

Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual's beliefs and activities should be understood by others in terms of that individual's own culture. Cultural relativism is widely accepted in modern anthropology. Cultural relativists believe that all cultures are worthy in their own right and are of equal value. Cultural relativism is closely related to ethical relativism, which views truth as variable and not absolute. Cultural relativism sees nothing inherently wrong (and nothing inherently good) with any cultural expression. 

A counterculture (also written counter-culture) is a subculture whose values and norms of behavior differ substantially from those of mainstream society, often in opposition to mainstream cultural mores.

A countercultural action or expression communicates disagreement, opposition, disobedience or rebellion. A counterculture rejects or challenges mainstream culture or particualr elements of it.

This might mean:

• Protesting against a particular situation or issue
• Rebelling against the accepted or acceptable way of doing things
• Struggling for liberation when you are oppressed or marginalised
• Finding new ways to represent yourself when you are misrepresented or simply not represented
• Creating your own culture when you are dissatisfied with the culture that is made for you

Jingoism

Jingoism is nationalism in the form of aggressive foreign policy.^[1] Jingoism also refers to a country's advocacy for the use of threats or actual force, as opposed to peaceful relations, in efforts to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests. Colloquially, it refers to excessive bias in judging one's own country as superior to others—an extreme type of nationalism.

Jingoism comes from the word jingo, the nickname for a group of British people who always wanted to go to war to prove the superiority of Britain. Now we use jingoism for that kind of aggressive, chauvinistic behavior in any country, or for things intended to stir up war-thirst and blind patriotism. If you see a TV show tries to get viewers to support a military cause without a critical look at whether war is necessary, call it jingoism.


Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism is a political system in which the state recognizes no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private life wherever feasible, without any respect for human rights.

Totalitarianism refers to an authoritarian political system or state that regulates and controls nearly every aspect of the public and private sectors. Totalitarian regimes establish complete political, social, and cultural control over their subjects, and are usually headed by a charismatic leader. In general, Totalitarianism involves a single mass party, typically led by a dictator; an attempt to mobilize the entire population in support of the official state ideology; and an intolerance of activities which are not directed towards the goals of the state, usually entailing repression and state control of business, labour unions, churches and political parties. A totalitarian regime is essentially a modern form of authoritarian state, requiring as it does an advanced technology of social control.

Most commentators consider the first real totalitarian regimes to have been formed in the mid-20th Century, in the chaos following World War I, at which point the sophistication of modern weapons and communications enabled totalitarian movements to consolidate power in:

• Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin (1878 - 1953), from 1928 to 1953.
• Italy under Benito Mussolini (1883 - 1945), from 1922 to 1943.
• Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler (1889 - 1945) from 1933 to 1945.
• Spain under Francisco Franco (1892 - 1975), from 1936 to 1975.
• Portugal under António de Oliveira Salazar (1889 - 1970), from 1932 to 1974.

Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with one's nation. It is a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, over a territory of historical significance to the group (such as its homeland). 

a feeling that people have of being loyal to and proud of their country often with the belief that it is better and more important than other countries


Voluntarism, sometimes referred to as voluntary action, is the principle that individuals are free to choose goals and how to achieve them within the bounds of certain societal and cultural constraints, as opposed to actions that are coerced or predetermined.

Social stratification refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. In the United States, it is perfectly clear that some groups have greater status, power, and wealth than other groups. These differences are what led to social stratification.

Calculus questions

Differentiation 2

Differentiation

ln(e) = 1

Power Rule

Example: What is x³ ?

The question is asking "what is the derivative of x³?"

We can use the Power Rule, where n=3:

xⁿ = nxⁿ⁻¹

x³ = 3x³⁻¹ = 3x²

Example: What is (1/x) ?

1/x is also x^-1

We can use the Power Rule, where n = −1:

xⁿ = nxⁿ⁻¹

x⁻¹ = −1x⁻¹⁻¹ = −x⁻²

Multiplication by constant

Example: What is 5x³ ?

the derivative of cf = cf’

the derivative of 5f = 5f’

We know (from the Power Rule):

x³ = 3x³⁻¹ = 3x²

So:

5x³ = 5x³ = 5 × 3x² = 15x²

Sum Rule

Example: What is the derivative of x²+x³ ?

The Sum Rule says:

the derivative of f + g = f’ + g’

So we can work out each derivative separately and then add them.

Using the Power Rule:

• x² = 2x
• x³ = 3x²

And so:

the derivative of x² + x³ = 2x + 3x²

Difference Rule

It doesn't have to be x, we can differentiate with respect to, for example, v:

Example: What is (v³−v⁴) ?

The Difference Rule says

the derivative of f − g = f’ − g’

So we can work out each derivative separately and then subtract them.

Using the Power Rule:

• v³ = 3v²
• v⁴ = 4v³

And so:

the derivative of v³ − v⁴ = 3v² − 4v³

Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication And Power Rules

Example: What is (5z² + z³ − 7z⁴) ?

Using the Power Rule:

• z² = 2z
• z³ = 3z²
• z⁴ = 4z³

And so:

(5z² + z³ − 7z⁴) = 5 × 2z + 3z² − 7 × 4z³ = 10z + 3z² − 28z³

Example: What is the derivative of cos(x)sin(x) ?

The Product Rule says:

the derivative of fg = f g’ + f’ g

In our case:

• f = cos
• g = sin

We know (from the table above):

• cos(x) = −sin(x)
• sin(x) = cos(x)

So:

the derivative of cos(x)sin(x) = cos(x)cos(x) − sin(x)sin(x)